Marvels of size and precision

The pyramids of Menkaure, Khafre and Khufu tower into the sky over the Giza plateau. Khufu's Great Pyramid, the most distant in this picture, is the highest. When we stand before these Old Kingdom monuments, it can be hard to comprehend their huge size or their great age.

The Sphinx and Great Pyramid of Khufu. The mysterious Great Sphinx, with human head and lion's body, is a colossal sculpture cut from the Giza bedrock. It appears to preside over the Giza necropolis.

Marvels of size and precision The Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Khufu (Cheops to the Greeks) ruled about 2589-2566 BCE when the Old Kingdom of Egypt was nearing a peak of prosperity and culture. His pyramid is astonishing for both its size and mathematical precision. It is often said that the Great Pyramid of Khufu contains 2.3 million stone blocks, although some now question this figure. The four sides of the pyramid are accurately oriented to the cardinal points of the compass. The base is a near perfect square with sides 230 meters long and a difference between them of only a few centimeters. The pyramid was originally encased in smooth, white limestone that must have gleamed in the harsh Egyptian sun. Unfortunately, this was plundered long ago to provide building materials for Cairo. This colossal structure was originally 146 meters high until it lost this outer casing and its capstone.

The Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is regarded as the most massive building ever erected in the world - a remarkable statistic for a construction feat achieved 4500 years ago!

How were the pyramids built? It seems likely that the Pyramids of Giza were not built by slaves but by paid laborers motivated by a faith in the divinity and immortality of their kings. Exactly how the pyramids were built is unclear. It is likely that a sloping embankment was built up to or around the pyramid. The huge blocks may then have been hauled on sledges with the aid of rollers, papyrus ropes and levers. Although most stone was quarried locally at Giza, some had to be transported to the site along the Nile.

Egypt Culture and Traditions

THE ENIGMATIC PYRAMIDS The Pyramids of Giza are the most famous monuments of ancient Egypt. These massive stone structures were built around 4500 years ago on a rocky desert plateau close to the Nile. But the intriguing Egyptian pyramids were more than just tombs for kings. The mysteries surrounding their symbolism, design and purpose have inspired passionate debate. It is likely that many of these mysteries will never be solved...

The rise and fall of the pyramid era The pyramids epitomize ancient Egypt, yet the biggest were constructed during a short span of time early in a civilization that was to last almost three millennia. The first large Egyptian pyramid was the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, built during the third dynasty of the Old Kingdom to protect the body of the king Djoser who died around 2649 BCE. It was this feat that heralded the short but remarkable age of the gigantic stone pyramids of ancient Egypt. The greatest achievements of the pyramid builders were the Pyramids of Giza, built near the capital city of Memphis for the fourth dynasty kings Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure who ruled through 2589-2504 BCE. But pyramid building soon waned as the power and prosperity of the kings of Egypt weakened with the end of the Old Kingdom.

The first large pyramid in Egypt was the Step Pyramid for the king Djoser. Essentially six stacked mastabas (tomb structures) of decreasing size, it was a major achievement and is the world's oldest known monumental stone structure. It was built at Saqqara, about 15 kilometers from Giza. The ultimate triumph for the Old Kingdom Egyptians. The mighty pyramids of Menkaure, Khafre and Khufu at Giza.

Pakistan's Heritage at Risk

Is it too late to bar the door?

This past Saturday, President Musharraf declared a state of emergency Saturday, suspending the Pakistan's constitution. He had won election to another 5-year-term by a wide margin on October 6 (his current term ends November 15), but the Supreme Court was considering legal challenges questioning his eligibility to run for re-election as president while army chief. Some believe Musharraf's declaration of emergency was to pre-empt the court from ruling against him. He says it was to save Pakistan from extremists. Opposition members have been detained and private news media shut down. Foreign governments are protesting the declaration and the ousted head of the Supreme Court has called for a popular uprising to topple Musharraf. The clear winners in all of this are people like Maulana Fazlullah and his followers.

Local residents sit near a defaced Buddha after Islamic extremists attacked the historic sculpture at Jehanabad in Pakistan's Swat Valley. (John Moore/Getty Images)

A radical cleric, Fazlullah has launched a Taliban-style campaign in the Swat Valley less than 100 miles northwest of the capital Islamabad. The leader of the banned Movement for the Enforcement of Islamic Law, he has called for a jihad against the government and his followers have bombed girls' schools and attacked video and CD stores. Fazlullah effectively blocked a UNESCO polio vaccination program because, according to one account, he said "it was a ploy by the West to sterilize Muslim babies." Of course, barbers cannot give haircuts in styles deemed un-Islamic and women must wear the burqa. In late October, open warfare between Fazlullah and government forces broke out. Hundreds have died, including captured security personnel and civilians who were beheaded by militants, and thousands of civilians have fled. Having fended off attacks by 2,500 Pakistani paramilitaries backed by helicopters, Fazlullah has not yet been dislodged from Swat.

The turmoil in Pakistan, especially the situation in Swat, has scholars concerned about the safety of the country's artistic and archaeological heritage. Relatively peaceful until recently, Swat was a tourist resort with spectacular mountain scenery. It also has a rich cultural heritage, especially Ghandaran art and Buddhist monuments. Adriana Proser, John H. Foster Curator of Traditional Asian Art, at the Asia Society in New York explains, "This area of what is today northern Pakistan was along a major route of the Silk Road. Gandhara was one of the major sites of the Kushan period (first through third centuries). The art of the Gandhara area is extremely important because it shows the impact of Hellenistic and Roman influence ushered in through the conquests of Alexander the Great. The stylistic impact of Gandharan Buddhist art traveled vast space and time, reaching places as far away China, Korea, and Japan. The Gandhara region became part of the Sasanian Empire (224-642), which preceded Islamic rule in Persia, and consequently the arts of the region also influenced artistic developments in the Middle East."

The consequences of prolonged political infighting in Pakistan, leaving Taliban-like militants unchecked may have dire consequences for this heritage. On Monday, October 8, dynamite was used to obliterate the face of a of 23-foot-high seventh-century seated Buddha carved into a rock face near the village of Jehanabad in the Swat Valley. This was the second attack on the Buddha. In early September, militants detonated explosives placed above and below the Buddha, but only damaged the stone rather than the sculpture. It appeared, according to police chief Mohammad Iqbal in an AFP story, "to be the work of the local militants who condemn these relics as being un-Islamic. It looks more like a symbolic attack to embarrass the government internationally." A witness in Jehanabad says that the armed group entered the village Monday evening and announced their intention to destroy the Buddha. According to Aqleem Khan, a provincial archaeology department official who spoke to Reuters, the militants drilled holes into the rock, filled them with dynamite, then set off the explosion the morning of Tuesday, September 11. Abdul Nasir, a curator at the Swat museum, known for its collection of Ghandaran sculptures, told AP that "Islam teaches us to respect other religions and faiths, but unfortunately some elements are disturbing the peace in the Swat valley."

"Any destruction of archeological and artistic sites such as this Gandharan Buddhist relief are an enormous loss for all who treasure historical records and significant and rare works of art," says the Asia Society's Proser. The attack recalls the March 2001 destruction of two giant Buddha statues in central Afghanistan by Taliban militants. "The destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas was a political act in religious guise, greatly increasing the reputation of the Taliban among its target audience," says Archaeological Institute of America vice president John Russell. "The AIA calls on all governments, and particularly in this case the government of Pakistan, to protect our shared world heritage from groups that exploit heritage for political gain by destroying parts of our common past." Adds AIA president C. Brian Rose, "Destroying icons in the name of religion has unfortunately been a component of human behavior since antiquity. In areas of conflict, archaeological institutes throughout the world need to work in unison to document and protect cultural property that is at risk."

Two years after the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan, UNESCO issued a "Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage." Among the stipulations of the Declaration are

The question today is, can Pakistan fulfill those responsibilities or is it no longer able to do so? During the ongoing political crisis, as Musharraf and the opposition fight, militants have an open field. In an old ballad, a husband and wife argue about who should get up and bar the door for the night. Both refuse to do it, saying it is the other's turn. Finally, the obstinate pair agrees that the first to speak will be the one to bar the door:

But only after robbers enter their home and begin discussing assaulting the couple does the husband object--and when it is far too late gets up to bar the door.

Mark Rose is Online Editorial Director, Archaeological Institute of America.

World Heritage Sites in Pakistan

Pakistan has inherited a wide array of heritage sites, six of which have been inscribed on the list of "World Heritage Sites", while a new tentative list has been prepared and submitted to the World Heritage Centre for approval. A brief description of sites already inscribed in the World Heritage List is given below:

Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro

The ruins of an immense city, Moenjodaro, which flourished in the valley of the Indus in the 3rd millennium B.C. were inscribed in the World Heritage List in 1980. The remains of the city are situated on the western bank of River Indus, about 12 kilometres from Moenjodaro railway station, in Larkana District of Sind.

The well-planned city, built mostly in baked brick buildings, having public baths, and a college of priests, elaborate drainage system, soak pits for disposal of sewerage and large state granary, bears testimony that it was a metropolis of great importance, with approximately forty thousand inhabitants, enjoying a well-organized civic, economic, social and cultural life.

Excavations comprising figures of animals like rhinoceros, tigers and elephants on seals recovered from the site, and the brick-lined street drains, suggest that the region enjoyed heavier rainfall at that time than at present. Wheat, barely, sesamum, field peas, dates and cotton appear to have been the main crops. Discovery of precious stones and other metallic objects, not normally found in this region, indicate trade with foreign countries.

It is not known for certain, how the great metropolis came to a tragic end. A gradual decline of the civilization, before the ultimate end is however, clearly noticeable, and an invasion by the Aryans or the neighbouring hill tribes, appears to have sealed the fate of Moenjodaro.

The remarkable structural remains of Moenjodaro, when excavated in the early 20s, were in excellent state of preservation, but the phenomenon of salt efflorescence on them was soon noticed. Over the years the problem has assumed alarming proportions, leading to damaging of bricks and disintegration of the structures. Another serious threat to Moenjodaro is that of inundation, posed by the River Indus, flowing very close to the site.

UNESCO, approached by the Government of Pakistan launched an International campaign to safeguard Moenjodaro. The international community responded favourably, and the international organizations such as UNDP, provided financial as well as technical resources to address the main problems of River and Ground Water Control. Some equipment for scientific study and execution of work and training of a few specialists was also arranged. Conservation of structural remains however, did not match the speed of deterioration. The International Campaign has since been closed, and the responsibility of maintenance and further conservation now rests with the Department of Archaeology, Government of Pakistan.

Taxila

From the ancient neolithic tumulus of Saraikala to the ramparts of Sirkap, (200 B.C.), to the city of Sirsukh, dating from the 1st century A.D., Taxila illustrates the different stages in the development of a city on the Indus, alternately influenced by Persia, Greece and Central Asia and which, from the 5th century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D., was an important Buddhist centre of learning. Taxila was inscribed in the World Heritage List in 1980.
The remains of the Buddhist establishments associated with Taxila, are spread over several kilometres on all sides. The large scale archaeological excavations in the valley, exposed vast areas of ancient structures. Most of these are built in lime stone masonry. Measures for conservation taken soon after the excavations, largely stabilized the structures. The wild growth of vegetation, weeds, lichen, fungus, mosses, atmospheric pollution etc. are largely responsible for the deterioration, and still pose major problems in conservation.

In a workshop sponsored recently by UNESCO, the concerned officials were imparted training to deal with these problems. Lately, the Taxila Valley has also become the hub of industrial activity, and several industrial units have been set up in the valley. Moreover, the rapid increase in population is posing new threats to the monuments. To deal with such problems, the Government of Pakistan has established a 'protected zone', which covers all the important areas of archaeological interest. Restrictions imposed in the protected zone, however, have not been very effective. Last year, a sports stadium was built in an open area of the Bhir Mound, the first city site. Orders have now been issued for its demolition.

Buddhist Ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Neighbouring City Remains at Sahr-i-Bahlol

These extensive remains of the Buddhist monastic establishment or Sangharama, were placed on the World Heritage List in 1980, and popularly known as the "throne of origins". This archaeological site and its associated secular buildings are located about 15 kilometres north-east of the city of Mardan in the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan.

The Takht-i-Bahi Complex, a gigantic Buddhist establishment was discovered in 1852 by European Lieutenants Lumsden and Stokes. The complex comprises several well-knit units:

i) Court of Many Stupas
ii) Monastery
iii) Main Stupa
iv) Assembly Hall
v) Low Level Chambers
vi) Courtyard
vii) Court of Three Stupas
viii) Wall of Colossi
ix) Secular buildings

All these structures are built in grey-coloured limestone, in mud mortar.

About five kilometres south-west of Takht-i-Bahi, is the modern village of Sahr-i-Bahlol, which occupies an extensive mound containing the remains of an ancient city, dating back to the same period.

The excavations at Takht-i-Bahi and Shar-i-Bahlol have yielded a large number of fine sculptures of Buddha, Boddisattavas and other deities, both in stone and stucco. Other valuable antiquities have also been found in the vicinity.

Being of outstanding quality and significance, the remains of Takht-i-Bahi have received much attention of the conservators. Consequently, conservation work on the site has been carried out periodically. The recent conservation works are a good example of a judicious mix of traditional as well as modern conservation practice. However, the residential buildings too, need the attention of conservators.

Historical Monuments of Thatta

The remains of the city of Thatta, inscribed in the World Heritage List in 1981, and its dilapidated necropolis provide a unique view of the Sind civilization. The capital of three successive dynasties and later ruled by the Mughal emperors, Thatta is a symbol of the glorious past of Sind from the 14th to the 18th centuries A.D. During this period, Thatta was one of the major seats of learning, fine arts and handicrafts.

The architecture of Thatta bears the distinct marks of its variant ancestry, its hallmark being the variety of forms and techniques of decoration. The brickwork found on the buildings of Thatta, is a superb example of craftsmanship.

The buildings, the tombs and the great necropolis of Thatta are now in shambles and need immediate attention. The Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan, is responsible for the site's maintenance and conservation. A detailed study had been conducted a few years back, in consultation with national and international experts. In the light of the findings of this study, the proposed conservation measures entail an amount of US$ 63 million, far beyond the government's resources. Efforts have been made by the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan, to capture the interest of visitors, by installing general and individual information boards on the monuments. But much needs to be done to make the site more presentable to attract tourists and other visitors.

Fort and Shalimar Gardens in Lahore

The history of Lahore can be traced back to the 2nd Century A.D. with the city having enjoyed the status of a capital for about a thousand years - sometimes of an empire and at other times that of a province. Each dynasty of its rulers - the Ghaznavids, Ghaurids, Turks, Sayyads, Lodhis, Mughals, Suris, Sikhs and the British - has left its imprints on the city.

Excavations conducted in the Lahore Fort revealed existence of the city in the early historic period. It is therefore believed that, the Fort was built with the founding of the city itself, its chequered history bearing testimony to the vicissitudes it suffered. The Mughal rulers however, brought this exercise to a halt, by providing it real stability.

The Fort is the only monument in Pakistan, which represents a complete history of Mughal architecture, as it was renovated, added and improved upon by subsequent Mughal rulers, after Emperor Akbar.

After the collapse of the Mughal authority, the Fort suffered again due to poor additions, alterations and an aggressive siege in 1841. After having demolished its southern fortification wall, in 1927, the British Government handed over the Fort to the Archaeological Survey of India, which took measures to remove systematically, all the additions and alterations carried out during the British rule, in an attempt to restore the original layout of the buildings and gardens.

Since Independence in 1947, the Department of Archaeology of the Government of Pakistan has been carrying out conservation work, on a limited scale though. Moreover, the pace of deterioration has rapidly outstripped the conservation efforts. The southern portion of the fortification wall and the Matbakh or the Royal Kitchen have demolished, while the ceiling of the Shish Mahal (Palace of Mirrors) is on the verge of collapse. Efforts are being made, in cooperation with UNESCO experts, to save the latter, after a detailed research into the cause of its decay.

The Shalimar Gardens, laid out at the command of Emperor Shah Jahan, reflect the genius of the Mughal landscape architecture, and embody the Mughal concept of a perfect garden: an enclosed area divided into symmetrical patterns of turf, containing water canals, ornamental tanks, and fountains, lined by cypresses and rose bushes.

Having lost much of their original splendor and beauty, at the hands of Sikh plunderers during the rule of Ranjit Singh, the Gardens were handed over to the Department of Archaeology in 1913. Since then, sustained efforts have been made to preserve the buildings, restore the Gardens to their original appearance and, recreate the former atmosphere.

UNESCO has time and again, provided expert advice through experienced consultants and encouraged the authorities concerned, to take appropriate measures to create awareness among the masses, to help preserve the Gardens.

The Lahore Fort and the Shalimar Gardens, the two exceptional examples of the splendor of the Mughal era, were inscribed together, in the list of World Heritage Sites in 1981.

Rohtas Fort

Qila Rohtas or the Rohtas Fort is an exceptional example of early Muslim military architecture in Central and South Asia, for it was built essentially for military purposes. Following the defeat of the Mughal Emperor Humayun in 1541, Sher Shah Suri built a strong fortified complex at Rohtas, a strategic site about 16 kilometres north-west of the city of Jhelum.

The gigantic fort is founded on steep rocks jutting into the river Kahan, its ramparts protected on the west and north sides by the river and by high hills on its east and south. It was never taken by assault and survives intact to the present day. The main fortifications consist of the massive walls, which extended for more than 4km; they are lined with bastions and pierced by monumental gateways.

There are indications that more structures had existed earlier, which either collapsed due to neglect, or were demolished in Mughal or later periods.

The Rohtas Fort is now a protected monument under the Antiquities Act 1975, and maintained by the Department of Archaeology, Government of Pakistan. Owing to its marvelous qualities of strength and solidity, and being the finest specimen of medieval military architecture in Pakistan, the fort was inscribed in the World Heritage List, by UNESCO, in 1997.